Class Notes 10/25/10 to 10/29/10

Notes on Drama

auditory and visual medium
     -uses movement, dialogue, monologue etc to create character, theme, etc.
consider the multiple functions each line/movement has
performed to create an illusion of reality
     -verisimilitude: the willing suspension of disbelief
     -required due to physical limitations of plays
dramatic structure
     -should be "consumed" all at one sitting
     -built around "dramatic questions" raised in the minds of the audience

Some Types of Drama

1. Tragedy: involved the ruin of the leading characters

                  destruction of some noble person through fate or flawed character

2. Comedy: lighter drama in which the leading characters overcome their 

                  difficulties

                  -action and dialogue is usually humorous

3. Melodrama: blend of the serious action of tragedy and the happy ending of 

                        comedy

                        -structured as a series of escapes by the protagonist from various

                        threats

                        -clearly defined "good" and "evil"

4. Tragi-Comedy: serious action with a happy ending, but more complex

                             -more thoughtful treatment of serious subject matter (love, 

                             courage, death, etc)

5. Problem Play: drama of social criticism that discusses social, economic, political 

                            problems

6. Farce: comedy involved in ridiculous/hilarious complications without regard for

               human values

7. Comedy of Manners: comedy which wittily portrays fashionable life

8. Domestic/Bourgeois Drama: serious play with "ordinary" people from everyday 

                                                  life                                      

9. Theater of the Absurd

                            

Perrine's Literature Ch 1: The Nature of Drama

     written to be performed, not read

     presents its action

        a) through actors

               its impact is direct

               registers directly upon the audience

               limited to objective or dramatic view

                    author cannot made comments directly

                    use soliloquy and asides to present a character's thoughts

        b) on a stage

               forcefully commands the audience's attention

               limits the kinds of materials that can be presented

        c) before an audience

               creates a communal experience

Evaluation Questions of Drama:

1. Does the play employ realistic or non realistic conventions?
2. Is the play a tragedy or comedy, a melodrama or a farce?
3. Identify the protagonists and antagonists. Are there any foil characters?
4. How is dramatic suspense created?
5. What themes does this play present?
6. How do the various physical effects reinforce the meanings and contribute to the emotional effects?
7. What amount of time is covered in the action?
8. To what extent does the play employ narration as a means of dramatic exposition?

Definitions:

realistic drama - drama that attempts, in content and in presentation, to preserve

 the illusion of actual,everyday life

nonrealistic drama - drama that, in content, presentation, or both, departs

                                  markedly from fidelity to the outward appearances of life

tragedy - drama, opposed to comedy, which depicts the causally related events 

                 that lead to the downfall and suffering of the protagonist

comedy - drama, opposed to tragedy, having usually a happy ending, and 

                emphasizing human limitation rather than human greatness

melodrama - drama related to tragedy but featuring sensational incidents, 

                      emphasizing plot at the expense of characterization, relying on 

                      cruder conflicts, and having a happy ending in which good triumphs  

farce - drama related to comedy but emphasizing improbable situations, violent 

            conflicts, physical action,and coarse wit over characterization or 

            an articulated plot

protagonist - the central character in a story or play

antagonist - any force in a story or play that is in conflict with the protagonist

foil character - a minor character whose situation or actions parallel those of a 

                         major character, and thus by contrast sets of or illuminates the 

                         major character

plot - the sequence of incidents or events of which a story or play is composed

suspense - the quality in a story or play that makes the reader eager to discover

                  what happens next and how it will end

themes - the central idea or unifying generalization implied or stated by a 

                literary work

didactic - poetry, fiction, or drama having as a primary purpose to teach 

                or preach

dramatic exposition - the presentation through dialogue of information about 

                                    events that occurred before the action of a play, or that 

                                    occur offstage or between the staged actions

Perrine's Literature Ch 2: Realistic and Nonrealistic Drama

     drama may be realistic or non realistic in mode of production as well as content

     all stage production involves artificiality

     there are many degrees of realism

          e.g. painted background to look like bookshelves v.s. actual bookshelves 

                with stocked with real books

    choice lies with the producer rather than the playwright

    dramatic convention: when drama asks us to accept certain departures from 

                                       reality

                                       e.g. a room with three walls, not four

    chorus: group of actors speaking in unison to convey communal or group 

                emotion

    narrator: speaks directly to the audience to provide commentary

~~~~~~~~~~Outside Connections~~~~~~~~~~~~

I think the idea of a using a chorus or a soliloquy is a great device to let the audience in on crucial information that would otherwise remain in the character's heads.

Outside Reading: Reflective Essay due 10/10/10

10/2/10

'Sweet Charity' by Zadie Smith

Reflective Essay

Zadie Smith started out in the same meager beginnings as another girl, Christine, whom she befriended. As they grew up, their lives took on completely different paths. Though Christine was the hard working one of the two, she was the one struggling to make ends meet while Smith luckily happened upon money. When Christine borrowed money from Smith when she was in a tight spot, Smith became falsely suspicious of Christine's intention to pay her back. Overall, this reflective essay is about Zadie Smith's experience with the “fatal underestimation of another's honesty”.

In the first half of the essay, Smith relates to the reader the major contrasts between herself and Christine. Christine was “determined to break what politicians call 'a cycle of urban underachievement'.” On the other hand, Smith spent “the summer of 1992 smoking weed.” Smith, herself, sees Christine in a better light than she sees herself. “Christine is one of many people to whom I am always surreptitiously apologizing for my obscene luck. Why do I have money when so many of my friends and family—all of whom have worked harder than I—do not?” The paradox between the different decisions they make in their lives and the lives they end up having is poignant.

The author's rhetoric is very casual. She creates a casual tone through many channels like syntax and diction. The syntax of the sentences make it seem as though Smith is talking to herself. “Can't have been an easy e-mail to write...Not such a lot of money. No skin off my nose.” Smith also uses syntax to create effects like emphasis on notable parts. “Not just nerds but black nerds, female viola-playing black nerds.” The repetition and structure of the sentence intensifies it. Short, choppy sentences like “We did our exams. We went to university. Christine fell pregnant” convey a casual passing of time. The essay also contains informal dialect from the Jamaican girls who harangued her, “BUT WHERE'D YOU GET THEM SHOES DOUGH?”, as well as informal e-mails without proper punctuation like capitalization. This makes the tone seem even more casual. The casual, informal tone of the essay makes it seem more personal. It causes the reader to feel as though they are in the mind of the speaker.

Though this essay was enjoyable, its tone would not be appropriate for an AP essay. The AP essay requires a more formal language than this essay has. It would be too casual to fare well. Choppy, unconventional syntax is used purposefully by Smith to create certain effects but it would not be fitting in the AP essay.

Outside Reading: Editorial due 10/10/10

10/2/10

'Will technology kill publishing? Not even close' by Harold McGraw III and Philip Russel

Editorial Column

This editorial column's purpose is to disperse ideas that publishers are suffering due to the boom of e-books and online sources for reading material because of the major shift from print to internet. Not only does the column show how one could understandably believe that claim to be true, it also takes on all of the false claims and proves them wrong one by one. This process is extremely effective because as the reader reads, they are presented with multiple false assumptions and given evidence with warrants that prove it to be false. By the end of the column, most readers will have been successfully persuaded.

The voice of the column is soft and understanding. The authors do not chastise people for believing the common idea they are trying to dispel, but rather saying that it is understandable that they believed it. “Casual observers could be forgiven for thinking this way based on headlines on the e-reading revolution.” They then begin to walk the reader, hand in hand, through why they are wrong. They use a rhetorical question to transition into shooting down false ideas. “Why is there such a gap between the perception of a dying industry and the reality of a rapidly adapting one? It begins with five common myths about publishing:” They then systematically point out false notions the media has circulated and proves them each wrong with solid evidence and warrants.

Though their process for persuading the reader of their viewpoint is highly effective, it may not be as appropriate on the AP Essay because it is expected to have traditional paragraphs with ones claim as the first sentence. In this column, the authors used headlines with false ideas then continued to prove them wrong. Other than the atypical structure, this column would be perfect on the AP Essay. The column is written in Plain Style. The authors' voice is clear, concise, and active. The authors made sure not to sound verbose but still maintained a formality. They made it a very easy read and comprehensive. These elements cause readers to feel comfortable and more receptive to what is being said.

Interestingly enough, Harold McGraw III, chairman, president, and CEO of The McGraw-Hill Companies, and Philip Russel, president of the company's professional book division, were the authors of this editorial column. This makes the fact that this column is meant to 'save face' for publishers painfully obvious. Nevertheless, they were successful in their effort to counteract the notions of today's publishing industry.

Outside Reading: Book Review due 10/10/10

10/1/10

'Backstage Drama' by Max Boot

Book Review

Max Boot's book review of Bob Woodward's “Obama Wars” is chock full of sarcasm and mockery. The review keeps the reader entertained and convinces them of Woodward's idiocy. His main argument seems to be that Woodward's narrative is redundant and reveals no insight. Therefore, Boot gives him a horrible, scathing review.

Boot successfully discredits Woodward by making him out to be a moron who wants to be taken seriously. He uses verbal irony extensively to mock Woodward. He sarcastically calls Woodward's book his “latest epic of insiderdom” to poke fun at the redundant insider information in the book. By dubbing Woodward “Mr. Behind-the-Scenes”, Boot is criticizing his lack of actual behind the scenes information. Boot proclaims the book to be “inadvertently hilarious and revealing”. These ridicules forces the reader to be unable to take Woodward seriously.

Boot relates reading "Obama's Wars" to feeling “trapped in a daylong meeting in an airless room”. This harsh simile expresses the dryness of the book. He attacks the vagueness of Woodward's sources. “The reader has to take on faith that his reporting is accurate, because the sourcing is so vague ("background interviews" with "firsthand sources").” Boot is also critical of the lack of relevance in the material. He claims the book is in a who-said-what format with no depth or valuable perspectives. Boot writes that “[Woodward] is concerned with the rivalry among power players: Who dissed whom? To which one might respond: Who cares?”

Even though Boot is attacking Woodward profusely, he never comes off as unreliable in his assertions. This is because his attacks aren't random or vague with no evidence. He backs up all of his assertions with viable proofs which allows the reader to trust his declarations.

Boot's rhetoric is effective and his diction is comprehensive. With every assertion he makes, he backs it up with persuasive evidence. He uses a logos argument by appealing to logic. The rhetoric he uses is appropriate for the audience. His diction appeals to people who are educated in government jargon, but it in no way prevents someone who is not from understanding his review. His writing style is clear and concise and he refrains from using the passive voice.

This review doesn't exactly fit any general category of literary criticism such as Formalism or New Historicism. It stands with the more modern criticism whose purpose is to reveal how ludicrous something is, like the satirical news shows The Daily Show and The Colbert Report. Through satire and sarcasm, they get their points across effectively.

Class Notes 10/11/10 to 10/22/10

Definitions of Style, Voice, and Tone

These are effects. They cannot be pointed out on the page but occur in the reader's mind. Techniques like diction, syntax, etc are tools that style, voice, and tone all use.

Style – refers to the language conventions the author uses to construct the story

            the characteristic way you see an author from story to story 

                 -like people's outfits

           -manipulating diction, sentence structure, phrasing, dialogue, etc creates 

            style outside of the story – in the author's world

           -requires a more academic, careful analysis

               e.g. richly detailed, flowing, barely controlled (Jamaica Kincaid's “Girl”)

                     sparing, minimalist, simple (Raymond Carver)

Voice – the communicative effect created by the author's style

             revealed through the speaker/narrator's voice

             an enduring personality, not a passing attitude

             uses character terms – refers to character in book and the author

             runs throughout the work

             allows more fanciful guesswork

             ask oneself “What kind of person does the narrator sound like?”

                                Serious? Judgmental? Tense? Concerned?

Tone – refers to the attitude that the speaker/narrator creates toward its subject

            matter

           -uses emotion/ emotional terms

           -an attitude

           -'in the moment'

           -style and voice contribute to tone

           -revealed through the author's technique 

                (diction, figurative language, syntax, etc)

                e.g. earnest and sincere towards the characters and events

                      humor and sarcasm can be created

Perrine's Literature Ch 11: Musical Devices

used throughout poetry

poets chose words for sound as well as meaning

“music...combined with a pleasurable idea” - Edgar Allan Poe

poetry achieves musicality through:

   -choice and arrangement of sounds

   -arrangement of accents

repetition and variation gives musical meaning to verses

provides subtle gratifications to the ear

alliteration: repetition of initial consonant sounds

   e.g. “tried and true” “fish or fowl”

assonance: repetition of vowel sounds

   e.g. “mad as a hatter” “free and easy”

consonance: repetition of final consonant sounds

   e.g. “odds and ends” “short and sweet”

rhyme: repetition of the accented vowel sound and any succeeding consonant sounds

   masculine: when rhyme sounds involve only one syllable

   e.g. support, retort

feminine: when rhyme sounds involve two or more syllables

   e.g. spitefully, delightfully

internal: when one or more rhyming words are within the line

end: when rhyming words are at the ends of lines

approximate(slant): include words with any kind of sound similarity

Words of Caution

1. repetitions are a matter of sound; spelling is irrelevant

   e.g. bear and pair = rhymes

          through and rough = not rhymes

2. alliteration, assonance, consonance, and masculine rhyme ordinarily involve 

    only stressed or accented syllables

3. the words involved in repetitions must be close enough together that the ear

    retains the word, subconsciously or consciously

Perrine's Literature Ch 12: Rhythm and Meter

rhythm: refers to any wavelike recurrence of motion or sound

              the natural rise and fall of language

             designates the flow of the actual, pronounced sound

             based on pause

accented: syllable given more prominence in pronunciation than the rest

results from one of four causes

stress – force of utterance, producing loudness*

              duration

              pitch

              juncture

              e.g. toMORrow, YESterday, interVENE

rhetorical stresses: make our intentions clear through accents

   e.g. I don't believe you versus I don't believe you

end-stopped line: the end f a line corresponds with a natural speech pause

run-on line: the sense of the line moves without pause on into the next line

caesuras: grammatical or rhetorical pauses that occur within lines

free verse: poetic line is the basic rhythmic unit

                   there are no necessary differences between the rhythms of free verse and prose except for line 

                   arrangement

prose poem: depends entirely on ordinary prose rhythms

                      claims to be poetry solely by its poetic elements (imagery, connotation, etc)

meter: identifying characteristic of rhythmic language that we can tap our feet to pattern that sounds follow 

            when a poet arranges them into metrical verse 

            foot: basic unit of a meter; normally one accented syllable plus one or two unaccented

                    monomer – one foot

                    dimeter – two feet

                    trimeter – three feet

                    tetrameter – four feet

                    pentameter – five feet

                    hexameter – six feet

             line: another basic unit; may be run-on or end-stopped

             stanza: consists of a group of lines whose metrical pattern is repeated throughout a poem

             metrical variations: call attention to sounds because they depart from the regular

             substitution: replacing the regular foot with another one

             extra-metrical syllables: added at the beginnings or ends of lines

             truncation: the omission of an unaccented syllable at either end of a line

scansion: the process of defining the metrical form of a poem

Steps for Scansion:

1. identify the prevailing foot

2. name the number of feet in a line – if this length follows any regular pattern

3. describe the stanzaic pattern – if there is one

Generalizations about Scansion:
1. don't read poem with exaggerated emphasis

    occasional scansion of a poem has value

2. scansion only begins to reveal the rhythmical quality of a poem

    it is incapable of describing the subtle rhythmic effects in poetry

3. divisions between feet have no meaning except to help identify the meter

    feet divisions only reveal regularity or pattern, not to indicate rhythm

    a) iambic feet have a rising pattern

    b) trochaic hinge word “only” has rhythmic echoes throughout the poem

4. perfect regularity of meter is no criterion of merit

    it is unimpressive and become monotonous

How to Introduce Variation:

1) substitutions of other kinds of feet for the basic foot

2) varying degrees of accent arising from the prose meaning of phrases

3) grammatical and rhetorical pauses

Perrine's Literature Ch 13: Sound and Meaning

conveys meaning or experience through sounds

1. poet can choose words whose sound in some degree suggests their meaning

   onomatopoeia: the use of words which sound like what they mean

                            e.g. hiss, snap, bang

   phonetic intensives: words whose sound to some degree connects with their meaning

                            e.g. fl- associates the idea of moving light – flare, flash, flicker

                                  gl- associates the idea of unmoving light – gleam, glint, glow

2. poet can group sounds to manipulate the effect

   euphonious: smooth and pleasant sounding

   cacophonous: rough and harsh sounding

   vowels generally are more pleasant and musical

      long – fuller and more resonant

                 e.g. fate, reed, coat, done

      short – less full and resonant

                 e.g. fat, red, cot, dun

   consonants are harder and less melodious

      liquids – smooth flowing

                 e.g. l, m, n, r

      plosives – harsher and sharper

                 e.g. d, k, p, t

3. poet can control the speed and movement of the lines by the choice and use of meter, by the choice and    

    arrangement of vowel and consonant sounds, and by the disposition of pauses

   -unaccented syllables go faster than accented syllables

   -long vowels take longer to pronounce than short ones

4. poet can control both sound and meter in such a way as to emphasize words that are important in meaning

   -highlight words through skillful placement of alliteration, assonance, etc

synesthesia: the stimulation of two or more senses simultaneously, especially when one sense is described in terms of the other

Perrine's Literature Ch 14: Pattern

structure: the arrangement of ideas, images, thoughts, sentences,e tc

internal ordering of the materials

form: the external pattern of a poem

Three Broad Forms:

   1. continuous form: the element of design is slight

   2. stanzaic form: written in a series of repeating units that usually have the same number of lines, metrical  

                             pattern, and rhyme scheme

                           -designates four things

                                 a) rhyme scheme (if there is one)

                                 b) position of the refrain (if there is one)

                                 c) prevailing metrical foot

                                 d) number of feet in each line

   3. fixed form: traditional pattern that applies to the whole poem

                        a) limerick: pattern of aa^3bb^2a^3

                                            for humorous, nonsense verses

                        b) sonnet: fourteen lines in length

                                         almost always iambic pentameter

                                  i) Italian/Petrarchan – divided between an octave (8 lines) 

                                                                   with the rhyme pattern abbaabba and 

                                                                   a sestet (6 lines) using the pattern 

                                                                   cdcdcd or cdecde

                                                                  -the division between octave and sestet

                                                                   indicates a division of thought

                                  ii) English/Shakespearean – has three quatrains and an 

                                                                              ending couplet the rhyming 

                                                                              pattern abab cdcd efef gg

                        c) villanelle: requires two rhyme sounds

                                            -five 3-line stanzas (tercets) and a 4-line concluding 

                                            quatrain

                                            -the 1^st and 3^rd lines of the first stanza are refrains

                                            -the first line repeats at the ends of the 2^nd and 

                                             4^th stanzas

                                            -the third line repeats at the ends of the 3^rd and

                                              5^th stanzas

                                            -the refrains are repeated as the last 2 lines

Perrine's Literature Ch. 15: Evaluating Poetry

When judging a poem, ask three questions:

1. What is its central purpose?

   -needed to understand the poem

2. How fully has this purpose been accomplished?

   -judges on a scale of perfection

    contains no excess or inexact words

    word order is meaningful

    organization is effective

3. How important is this purpose?

   -judges on a scale of significance

What constitutes as good poetry?

    Its combination of thought, emotion, language, and sound must be fresh and original

Three ways a poem fails to achieve excellence:

    Sentimental: indulgence in emotion for its own sake, or expression of more emotion than an occasion  

                         warrants

                        “tear jerking” literature

                         aims to stimulate emotion rather than communicate experience

    Rhetorical: uses a language more glittering and high-flown than its substance 

                        warrants

                       -it is oratorical, overelegant, artifically eloquent, and often trite

                       -it deals in generalities

    Didactic: poetry whose purpose is to teach or preach

                   recognized by its lack of any specific situation, flatness in diction, 

                   poverty of imagery and figurative language, emphasis on moral platitudes, 

                   lack of poetic freshness

Caution to students:

   always be HONEST

Perrine's Literature Ch 16: Evaluating Poetry 2

How important is its purpose?

     -it communicates a rich experience

     -engages us and gives us a broader and deeper understanding of life

Class Notes 10/4/10 to 10/8/10

AP English Examination

Multiple Choice: 45%

60 minutes

55 questions

Range from 1-5 level questions

Essay Questions: 55%

120 minutes

3 essays

2 essays on closed reading – about a specific passage

   -answer the hidden “So What?” question: How does the author use technique to create

     an effect and what does it mean

1 essay with open prompt – more general

   -prepare a limited number of works thoroughly

   -before 1850, after 1850, novel, & play

Read the essay question CAREFULLY and REPEATEDLY

Skeleton for a comparing and contrasting essay:

   Poem A and Poem B share similarities in that...

   -proof through technique

   But Poem A really focuses on meaning...

   -proof through technique

   While Poem B really focuses on meaning...

   -proof through technique

item analysis – why you answered a question how you did

analyze – to show how the parts contribute to the functioning of the whole

Vocabulary is critical

***NO WRONG ANSWER PENALTY***

~~here are some sample questions from the AP English Exam~~

http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/english_lit/samp.html?englit

Perrine's Literature Chapter 8: Allusion

allusion: a reference to something in history or previous literature

   -is like a richly connotative word or symbol that suggests far more than it says

   -reinforce the emotions/ideas of one's own work with the emotion/ideas of anothers

   -risk of going over the reader's head or being misunderstood

~~more on allusions~~

http://www.worsleyschool.net/socialarts/allusion/page

Perrine's Literature Chapter 9: Meaning and Idea

total meaning: the experience a poem communicates

   -can be communicated in no other way

prose meaning: the ingredient that can be separated out in the form of a prose paraphrase

   -the 'plum in the pie'

   -an idea that's only part of the total meaning

“The value and worth of the poem are determined by the value of the total experience, not by the truth or the nobility of the idea itself. But a good idea lone will not make a good poem, nor need an idea with which the reader does not agree ruin one.”

willing suspension of disbelief: the ability to temporarily entertain the ideas presented even if one regards it  

                                                  as untrue

   -useful skill for poetry readers

~~More on prose and total meaning~~

http://www.freewebs.com/english-brain/poetry3.htm

Outside Connections

I read “Out, out -” by Robert Frost in my English class last year, and it came as quite a surprise to me that the title was an allusion to Macbeth. I was completely oblivious and had no idea. Once I read the passage in Perrine's explaining it, I felt like a light bulb went turned on in my head when I finally made the connections one year too late. This is a perfect example of writers risking going over the reader's head with allusions.

Works Cited

"Allusion in Prose and Poetry" Worsley School OnLine. The Website for Worsley School. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.

"AP: English Literature." College Admissions - SAT - University & College Search Tool. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.

Blake:, By William. "English Brain | Where English Is Made Easy!" Webs – Make a Free Website, Get Free Hosting. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. 

Class Notes 9/27/10 to 10/1/10

The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing: Clarity

clarity: being clear in your thoughts and words

saying what you intend to say in a way the reader understands

Aspects of clarity:

-short active verbs (to convey action)

-subjects that match up with their actors

-concision (keeping reader focused on what really matters)

-sustain a single point of view

Aspects of non-clarity:

-passive voice

-being verbs

-nominalizations

-wordiness

-jumps in point of view and time

Actions and Verbs:

-make sure there's a sense of action

-don't be reluctant to say something plainly

-use strong verbs with clear actors

e.g. Machiavelli best supports                         Machiavelli praises republics

       republics in The Discourses.                    in The Discourses.

-don't treat actions as abstractions separated from their doers

(view comes from, morality is taken, etc)

-attach verbs to real actors

e.g. Machiavelli's view of Christianity               Machiavelli judges religion

      comes from...                                            from a...

Clauses:

-clauses are the key syntactical structure of sentences

   -clause: consists of a noun acting as a subject and a finite, conjugated verb attached to that subject

                finite – has a specific tense

                conjugated – fits the person and number of a subject

   -phrase: any string of words that isn't a clause

   -independent clause: can stand on its own

   -dependent clause: cannot stand on its own

Types of Verbs:

active verbs – express an action of some kind

                        e.g. He felt raindrops.

                               She hurried to catch up.

being verbs – express a state of being/identity

                       e.g. The experiment was a failure.

                             Hamlet feels alienated.

transitive verbs – express action upon a direct object

                             e.g. I dropped by backpack.

                                   The dog bit me.

intransitive verbs – express action without a direct object

                                e.g. The experiment failed.

                                       The backpack dropped in the mud.

Types of Voices:

voice – refers to how you express action with the verb

the subject performs or receives the action

active voice – the subject performs the action

                       e.g. Bill Gates founded Microsoft.

                             He made a mistake.

passive voice – the subject receives the action

                         e.g. Microsoft was founded in 1975.

                               Mistakes were made.

– the doer can be left out of the action

– try to avoid abusing passive voice in writing

Nominalizations:

-actions expressed as nouns

-any nominalization can be turned into a verb, vice versa

Nominalization                                           Verb

   argument                                                argue

  performance                                          perform

  explanation                                             explain

  distortion                                                distort

-allows one to present actions without actors

-try to avoid using nominalizations

e.g. An analysis was                                     Dr. Radic performed

      performed.                                             an analysis.

The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing: Plain Style

How to write plainly and clearly:

-strive to be sensibly simple

-develop a baseline style of

    short words

    active verbs

    simple sentences conveying clear actions or identities

-don't assume you must sound mature and scholarly

e.g. To satisfy her own need                                      She devoured the bread.

      of hunger, she ate the bread.

The Official Style:

-obfuscation, nominalizations, passive voice, long wordy constructions that muddy up questions of who did      what

-prevalent in bureaucracies

-hides true meaning under mounds vocabulary and syntax

-question of agency: who did what

(people duck question of agency to avoid having to admit who is at fault)

The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing: Concision

-concision is intimately connected to clarity

-action-oriented subject-verb constructions that match syntax with logic = concise writer

-wordiness serves as camouflage to reduce one's visibility

How to Achieve Concision:

1) build around strong verbs

2) prefer the active voice to the passive voice

3) be suspicious of adverbs

e.g. Socrates convincingly explains                            Socrates explains his

      his position to Crito.                                            position to Crito.

4) toss out empty words and phrases (fluff)

e.g. Capitalism is accompanied                                 Capitalism is accompanied

       by the ideal of freedom as                                  by the ideal of freedom.

       something to be attained.

The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing: Rhetoric

Rhetoric:

-the art or science of persuasion by means of stylistic and structural techniques

-encourages us to think of writing as a series of strategic choices

-encourages thinking about one's audience since different audiences require different rhetorical

choices

Diction:

-what words to use

-first rhetoric choice a writer makes

-different audiences have different expectations about appropriate diction

(scientific community vs elementary school children)

Parallelism:

-refers to any structure which brings together parallel elements

(nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc)

-one of the most useful and flexible rhetorical techniques

-inversion/chiasmus: parallel elements are reversed for emphasis

gains power by focusing attention on ends of sentences

e.g. “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your

        country.” - J.F.K

Repetition:

-allows a writer to hammer home an idea, image, or relationship, to force the reader to pay

  attention

-one of the most useful tools available to writers

-elegant variation: the tendency of young authors to fear repetition

Tenses:

-refers to the time (past, present, future) in which actions occur

-once you begin a passage in one tense, stay in that tense

-historical present: the present tense one should use when writing about a text

-use past tense if presenting a fact or mentioning a work in passing

e.g. Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513.

Alliteration:

-beginning two or more stressed syllables with the same letter or sound

-helps reader become more receptive to your argument

-use sparingly

The Rule of Three:

-lists of all kinds (things, qualities, actions, reasons, etc) tend to come across most powerfully

when they contain three items

-called tricolon in classical rhetoric

-the third term is often slightly larger it its focus than the first two, making a more general point

Humor:

-humor and flourishes like slang should be used sparingly

-wry observations and ironic observations are more acceptable then outright jokes

First Person, Second Person, and Punctuation:

-I, me, my; we, us, our; you, your

-first person is allowed if it is used appropriately

-it's okay to use I as long as it doesn't venture into editorializing and emotion

-the acceptable amount varies from field to field

-using you changes the dynamic of the paper; depends on the situation

-direct questions are acceptable

-exclamations are not acceptable

Placing Emphasis:

-take advantage of the natural rhythm of English sentences

-the end of a sentence packs the most wallop

-familiar info is placed at the beginning

-new info is placed at the end

Syntax

Syntax are rules governing the structure of sentences

Choices in syntax impacts the reader

Techniques of Syntax

Conjunctions

   coordinating -and, but, or, yet, so, etc.

                       -coordinate among equals (marriage relationship)

   subordinating -one is dominant

                        -one relies on the other (parent – child relationship)

Sentences

   compound: has coordinating conjunctions

   complex: has subordinating conjunctions

   simple: has neither coordinating or subordinating conjunctions

Sentence Variety

keep in mind the construction and length of the sentences

note the use or disuse of:

   Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure

   Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC) structure

short, medium, long sentence?

Effects of Syntax

pace – deliberately faster, slower, etc

tone

attention/emphasis – beginning/ends of sentences are “value spots”

                            – if a point is meant to be buried, it's placed mid sentence

~~~Here's the entire Nuts and Bolts of College Writing website!~~~

http://nutsandbolts.washcoll.edu/

Effects of Syntax: (Artful Sentences: Syntax as a Style)

being verb sentences seem passive

He was angry.

intransitive verb sentences seem more active

His heart pounded.

transitive verb sentences are the most active

He shoved the door open.

short sentences convey action forcefully

He drew his gun.

present tense conveys action forcefully

In five seconds you'll be dead, Harris thought.

sentence fragments can sound lyrical, choppy, confused, etc

The coward. Behind the chair, shaking. Begging.

constructions can be intensified with verbals

His begging was worth than futile; it was infuriating.

imperatives are more forceful than declaratives

Harris had had enough. Just do it, he thought.

the -ing form of verbs makes constructions active and forceful

Tightening his finger on the trigger...

passive voice can obscure responsibility

Jones had been shot.

omission of conjunctions creates hurried tone

Raging, desperate, wild...

verbals opening sentences creates suspense

Crossing towards Harris...

~~~Some more info on syntax~~~

http://esl.fis.edu/learners/advice/syntax.htm

AP LIT Formula

What technique does the author use?

What effect does that technique achieve?

What does it mean?

Outside Connections:

I noticed that many school textbooks employ Official Style. Instead of being clear and straightforward, they try confuse the reader with messy syntax and heavy vocabulary.

Class Notes 9/20/10 to 9/24/10

Perrine's Literature Ch 5: Figurative Language I

Figure of Speech

   -any way of saying something other than the ordinary way

Figurative Language

   -language using figures of speech; shouldn't be taken literally

Simile and Metaphor

   -compare things that are essentially unlike

        a) Simile: comparison is expressed by the use of like, as, than, similar to, resembles, seems, etc.

        b) Metaphor: comparison is created when a figurative term is substituted for or identified with the literal    

                             term

Four Forms:

1) both the literal and figurative terms are named (simile)

2) the literal term is named and the figurative term is implied

3) the literal term is implied and the figurative term is named

4) both the literal and figurative terms are implied (rare)

Personification and Apostrophe

   -closely related ways of giving life and immediacy to one's language

   a) Personification: giving the attributes of a human being to an animal, object, or

                               a concept

                              -subtype of a metaphor

   b) Apostrophe: addressing someone absent or dead or something nonhuman as if

                           it were present and alive and could reply to what's being said

Synecdoche and Metonymy

   -rest on congruences or correspondences

   -substitute some significant detail or quality of an experience for the experience itself

   a) Synecdoche: the use of the part for the whole

                           e.g. All hands on deck!

   b) Metonymy: the use of something closely related for the thing actually meant

Reasons for the Effectiveness of Figurative Language

1) affords us imaginative pleasure

2) it's a way of bringing additional imagery into verse, of making the abstract concrete and poetry more sensuous

3) it's a way of adding emotional intensity to otherwise merely informative statements and of conveying attitudes along with information

     e.g. “He is a rat” or “My feet are killing me”

reveals the characteristics of a speaker

how a character expresses a thought will define the attitudes or qualities as much as what that thought is

4) effective means of concentration, a way of saying much in brief compass

When Analyzing a Poem...

   -decide what it is that the figures accomplish as well as identifying them

   -ask yourself

   1) What use is being made of this figure?

   2) How does it contribute to the experience of the poem?

Bored?

Then play a fun game of Hangman: Figures of Speech Edition!!!

http://www.quia.com/hm/80390.html

Perrine's Literature Ch 6: Figurative Language II

Differences between figurative languages:

   image - means what it is

               e.g. a dirty dog rubbed his back on a white fence

   metaphor - means something other than what it is

               e.g. some dirty dog stole my wallet last night

   symbol - means what it is and more

               e.g. you can't teach an old dog new tricks

The interpretations of symbols in poems vary in degree to the openness of it:

   e.g. “A Noiseless Patient Spider” by Walt Whitman

         -symbol's meaning is explicitly stated

   e.g. “The Sick Rose”

         -no meanings are indicated

When interpreting a symbol:

   -do not assume things based on personal opinions

   -use delicacy, tact, and good sense

   -avoid the tendency to indulge in symbol-hunting and see anything as symbolic

Allegory:

   -narrative or description that has a second meaning beneath the surface

   -involves a system of related comparisons

   -puts less emphasis on images and more on their ulterior meanings

   -meanings are definite, unlike a symbol

   -effective way of making the abstract concrete

Brush up on common poetry terms!

http://library.thinkquest.org/J0112392/

Perrine's Literature Ch 7: Figurative Language III

Paradox, Overstatement, Understatement

1) Paradox

-apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true

-the contradiction usually stems from one of the words being used figuratively or with more than one denotation

-used for “shock value” of its seeming impossibility

-its apparent absurdity underscores the truth of what's being said

2) Overstatement (hyperbole)

-exaggeration in the service of truth

-meant to add emphasis; not to be taken literally

   e.g. I'm starved!

         You could have knocked me over with a feather!

3) Understatement

-saying less than one means

-may exist in what one says or how one says it

   e.g. “a light snack” in reference to a heavy meal

Types of Irony

1) Verbal Irony

-discrepancy between what the speaker says and what the speaker means

-difference between verbal irony and sarcasm and satire

   a) Sarcasm: bitter cutting speech intended to wound feelings on a colloquial level

   b) Satire: ridicule of human folly or vice with the purpose of bringing

                  about reform; more formal; applied to written literature

2) Dramatic Irony

-discrepancy between what the speaker says and what the poem means

-poem indicated to the reader ideas/attitudes opposed to those the speaker voices

-also used to illuminate the character

3) Irony of Situation

-when a discrepancy exists between the actual circumstances and those that

would seem appropriate or between what one anticipates and what actually

comes to pass

The Rhetorical Situation

rhetoric – the art of communication

rhetoric situation – set of circumstances surrounding the act of communication

Elements:

Subject – what is the topic?

                broaden, narrow, refocus?

                details, examples, explanations?

Purpose -what effect wants to be created?

               to entertain: for pleasure

               to reflect: personal responses

               to inform: convey facts, common ideas, etc

               to persuade: seek to change the audiences ideas

Audience - who will receive this communication?

                  what's the age group?

                  would they have any biases? (social, religious, etc)

                  what's their educational background?

Speaker (Persona) - how do you want to seem when sending this message?

                                are you or a fictional personality speaking?

                                what attitude do you want convey towards your audience?

                                what character traits would help you connect with the audience?

Arguments

Argument is one way to accomplish the goal of persuasion

Persuasion is a purpose for communication

   Persuasive Communication:

   Argument

      Logos – appeals to logic

                    logical arguments constructed to appeal to our ability to reason

      Pathos – appeals to emotion

                    feelings like pity, sympathy, anger, etc

      Ethos – appeals to ethics

                  our morality; sense of right and wrong

Argumentation Vocabulary:

Thesis – the main point

              an opinion that you prove though your paper

Claim – an assertion; idea that's not a simple fact

             a series of claims can support one's thesis

Warrant – an explanation of your reasoning

                 shows what your evidence means and how it supports your claim

                *the warrant ties the claim and evidence together*

Evidence – facts that show your claims are reasonable

Fallacy – false reasoning; bad logic

Necessary – needed elements of an argument that can't be ignored

Sufficient – when the condition is sufficiently met

                  you have done enough to make your case

                  it has enough gravitas

Affirm - “agree with”

              claims, thesis statements, and conclusions can all affirm an idea

Deny - “disagree with”

             claims, thesis statements, and conclusions can all deny an idea

Qualify - “agree with under certain circumstances”

               claims, thesis statements, and conclusions can all set special circumstances under which they all will     

               agree with an idea

Common Types of Arguments:

Proposal Argument

   -proposes something should be done and attempts to justify why

Cause and Effect Argument

   -seek to show how some situation happens

Argument of Evaluation

   -make judgments on the quality of things by establishing a standard and then measuring something against it

Argument of Fact

   -shows that despite controversy or misunderstanding, facts can be established

Argument of Definition

   -attempts to create boundaries around a concept by showing what should/should not be included in a  

    certain category

How to Construct an Argument:

1) ask yourself about the rhetoric situation

   -purpose in the argument

   -the audiences expectations

   -persona you are trying to project

   -needs of your subject matter

2) construct a thesis

3) what does the audience need to know to accept my thesis?

4) have each section of the ensuing argument based on a claim tied to evidence with warrants

More information on argumentative essays

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/05/

Outside Connections:

I can now see the importance of learning about rhetoric this week because the lesson on rhetoric has helped me with my outside readings. I can also see how it will be incredibly useful for our AP Essays.